Python 2.4 Quick Reference |
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Contents
Front matterVersion 2.4The latest version is to be found here. Please report errors, inaccuracies and suggestions to Richard Gruet (pqr at rgruet.net).
Useful links :
Tip: From within the Python interpreter, type 起動オプションpython[w] [-dEhimOQStuUvVWxX?] [-c command | scriptFile | - ] [args]
環境変数
Notable lexical entitiesKeywordsand del for is raise
Identifiers(letter | "_") (letter | digit | "_")*
String literals2種類:str (8 bits/文字 のプレーンで古い形式の文字列) と unicode (16 bits/文字 のUCS2を採用した文字列).
Boolean constants (2.2.1 以降)
Numbers
Sequences
Dictionaries (Mappings)
Dictionaries (type
Keys は hashable type でなくてはいけない; Values はどんなtypeでもよい.
Operators and their evaluation order
Basic types and their operationsComparisons (defined between any types)
None
Boolean operators
Numeric typesFloats, integers, long integers, Decimals.
Operators on all numeric types
整数と長整数におけるビット演算子
Complex Numbers
Numeric exceptions
Operations on all sequence types (lists, tuples, strings)
Operations on mutable sequences (type
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| Operation | Result |
Notes
|
|---|---|---|
| len(d) | d がもつ要素の数 | |
| dict() dict(**kwargs) dict(iterable) dict(d) |
空の辞書(dictionary)を生成. 辞書を生成, キーワード引数 kwargs で初期化. 辞書を生成, iterable から供給される (key, value) のペアで初期化. 辞書を生成, 辞書 dをコピーする. |
|
| d.fromkeys(iterable, value=None) | 辞書を生成するクラスメソッド, iterator から供給される key を設定し, 値はすべて value にする. | |
| d[k] | 要素の指定: d のキー k |
(1)
|
| d[k] = x | d[k] に x を代入 | |
| del d[k] | d から d[k] を削除 |
(1)
|
| d.clear() | d の全要素を削除 | |
| d.copy() | d の 浅い コピー | |
| d.has_key(k) k in d |
d にキー k が存在していれば True, それ以外の場合 False |
|
| d.items() | A copy of d's list of (key, item) pairs |
(2)
|
| d.keys() | A copy of d's list of keys |
(2)
|
| d1.update(d2) | for k, v in d2.items(): d1[k] = vSince 2.4, update(**kwargs) and update(iterable) may also be used. |
|
| d.values() | A copy of d's list of values |
(2)
|
| d.get(k, defaultval) | The item of d with key k |
(3)
|
| d.setdefault(k[,defaultval]) | d[k] if k in d, else defaultval(also setting it) |
(4)
|
| d.iteritems() | Returns an iterator over (key, value) pairs. | |
| d.iterkeys() | Returns an iterator over the mapping's keys. | |
| d.itervalues() | Returns an iterator over the mapping's values. | |
| d.pop(k[, default]) | Removes key k and returns the corresponding value.
If key is not found, default is returned if given, otherwise KeyError is raised. |
|
| d.popitem() | Removes and returns an arbitrary (key, value) pair from d |
|
TypeErrorが通知されます.KeyErrorが通知されます. None が返されます.None が返され、mapにも None が加えられます. str & unicode)str型 と unicode型は、共通のベースクラス basestring を共有しています| Operation | Result |
Notes
|
|---|---|---|
| s.capitalize() | s のコピーを返す. 先頭文字だけ大文字化する. | |
| s.center(width) | s のコピーを返す. 文字列を中央揃え. |
(1)
|
| s.count(sub[ ,start[,end]]) | 文字列 s に含まれるサブ文字列 sub の数を返す. |
(2)
|
| s.decode([ encoding[,errors]]) | str s を codec (encoding) でデコードした unicode 文字列を返す. ファイルもしくは str のみ扱うI/O関数などから読み込む際に便利である. encode と逆の操作を行う. |
(3)
|
| s.encode([ encoding[,errors]]) | s をエンコードした文字列を str 形式で返す. たいがいは unicode 文字列を str にエンコードして表示したりファイルに書き出したりするのに使う (これらのI/O関数が str しか受け付けない為). また str to a str 型のエンコードにも使用される, 例 zip
(codec 'zip') や uuencode (codec 'uu') する場合. decode の逆の操作をする. |
(3)
|
| s.endswith(suffix [,start[,end]]) | s が指令された suffix でおわっていた場合に True を返す, そうでない場合 False を返す. |
(2)
|
| s.expandtabs([ tabsize]) | s のコピーを返す. その際, 全てのタブ文字を空白文字(space)で展開し置き換える. |
(4)
|
| s.find(sub[ ,start[,end]]) | s からサブ文字列 sub が最初に見つかった位置を返す. sub が見つからなかった場合 -1 を返す. |
(2)
|
| s.index(sub[ ,start[,end]]) | find() と同じだが, サブ文字列が見つからなかった場合に ValueError例外を通知する. |
(2)
|
| s.isalnum() | s の全文字が アルファベットか数字 である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(5)
|
| s.isalpha() | s の全文字が アルファベット である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(5)
|
| s.isdigit() | s の全文字が 数字 である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(5)
|
| s.islower() | s の全文字が 小文字 である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(6)
|
| s.isspace() | s の全文字が 空白文字 である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(5)
|
| s.istitle() | 文字列 s が 先頭だけ大文字(titlecased) である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(7)
|
| s.isupper() | s の全文字が 大文字 である場合 True. そうでない場合 False. |
(6)
|
| separator.join(seq) | シーケンス seq の文字列を結合して 返す, 区切り文字列
に separator を使用する. 例: ",".join(['A', 'B', 'C']) -> "A,B,C" |
|
| s.ljust/rjust/center(width[, fillChar=' ']) | s を長さ width 内で 右寄せ/左寄せ/中央ぞろえ した文字列を返す. |
(1), (8)
|
| s.lower() | 小文字に変換した s のコピーを返す. |
|
| s.lstrip([chars] ) | s のコピーを返す, 先頭から文字列 chars を削除. (default: 空白文字(blank chars)) |
|
| s.replace(old, new[, maxCount =-1]) | Returns a copy of s with the first maxCount (-1: unlimited) occurrences of substring old replaced by new. |
(9)
|
| s.rfind(sub[ , start[, end]]) | Returns the highest index in s where substring sub is found. Returns -1 if sub is not found. |
(2)
|
| s.rindex(sub[ , start[, end]]) | like rfind(), but raises ValueError when the substring is not found. |
(2)
|
| s.rstrip([chars]) | Returns a copy of s with trailing chars(default: blank chars) removed. |
|
| s.split([ separator[, maxsplit]]) | s に含まれる単語のリストを返す, separator を区切り文字とする. |
(10)
|
| s.rsplit([ separator[, maxsplit]]) | split と同じだが, 分割操作を文字列の末尾から開始する. |
(10)
|
| s.splitlines([ keepends]) | s に含まれる行のリストを返す, 行の境界で分割. |
(11)
|
| s.startswith(prefix [, start[, end]]) | Returns True if s starts with the specified prefix, otherwise returns False.
Negative numbers may be used for start and end |
(2)
|
| s.strip([chars]) | Returns a copy of s with leading and trailing chars(default: blank chars) removed. |
|
| s.swapcase() | Returns a copy of s with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice versa. |
|
| s.title() | Returns a titlecased copy of s, i.e. words start with uppercase characters, all remaining cased characters are lowercase. |
|
| s.translate(table [, deletechars]) | Returns a copy of s mapped through translation table table. |
(12)
|
| s.upper() | Returns a copy of s converted to uppercase. |
|
| s.zfill(width) | Returns the numeric string left filled with zeros in a string of length width. |
sys.getdefaultencoding() です, デフォルト･エンコーディングは sys.setdefaultencoding() によって変更できます. オプション引数 error を与えることで異なるエラーハンドリング・スキームをセットできます. 標準では errors に 'strict' がセットされており, これによってエンコーディング・エラーから ValueError が通知されます. 他に設定可能な値として 'ignore' と
'replace' を選べます. モジュール codecs も参照のこと.False が返されます. False が返されます. None である場合, 空白文字列が separator とします. maxsplit が与えられている場合, リストへ分割する最大回数が maxsplit で指定した回数までに制限されます. formatString % args --> evaluates to a string
%[flag][width][.precision] formatCodeformatCode には c, s, i, d, u, o, x, X, e, E, f, g, G, r, % の内いづれかが置かれます(下記の表を参照).
| Format string | Result |
|---|---|
'%3d' % 2 |
' 2' |
'%*d' % (3, 2) |
' 2' |
'%-3d' % 2 |
'2 ' |
'%03d' % 2 |
'002' |
'% d' % 2 |
' 2' |
'%+d' % 2 |
'+2' |
'%+3d' % -2 |
' -2' |
'%- 5d' % 2 |
' 2 ' |
'%.4f' % 2 |
'2.0000' |
'%.*f' % (4, 2) |
'2.0000' |
'%0*.*f' % (10, 4, 2) |
'00002.0000' |
'%10.4f' % 2 |
' 2.0000' |
'%010.4f' % 2 |
'00002.0000' |
'%s has %03d quote types.' % ('Python', 2) == 'Python has 002 quote types.'
a = '%(lang)s has %(c)03d quote types.' % {'c':2, 'lang':'Python'}
(vars() 関数を右辺に使用すると、とても便利です) | Code | Meaning |
|---|---|
| d | decimal 符号付き整数. |
| i | decimal 符号付き整数. |
| o | 符号無し 8進数. |
| u | decimal 符号無し. |
| x | 符号無し 16進数 (小文字表記). |
| X | 符号無し 16進数 (大文字表記). |
| e | 浮動小数点数の指数表現 (小文字表記). |
| E | 浮動小数点数の指数表現 (大文字表記). |
| f | 浮動小数点数の小数点表現. |
| F | 浮動小数点数の小数点表現. |
| g | 指数部分が -4 より大きいなら "e" と同じ, 小さいならば 有効桁を表示, それ以外は "f". |
| G | 指数部分が -4 より大きいなら "E" と同じ, 小さいならば 有効桁を表示, それ以外は "F". |
| c | 1文字表示 (integer か 1文字のstringをとる). |
| r | 文字列(String) (任意のpythonオブジェクトを repr() で変換). |
| s | 文字列 (任意のpythonオブジェクトを str() で変換).
|
| % | 変換引数なし, 文字 "%" を出力します. (完全な記述による指定方法は %% です.) |
| Flag | Meaning |
|---|---|
| # | The value conversion will use the "alternate form". |
| 0 | 変換時に0をつめる. |
| - | The converted value is left adjusted (overrides "-"). |
| (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty string) produced by a signed conversion. | |
| + | A sign character ("+" or "-") will precede the conversion (overrides a "space" flag). |
substitute or safe_substitute メソッドにより dictionary から与えられます (もしキーが見つからなかった場合 substitute は 例外 KeyError を投げます, また safe_substitute はキーがなくても無視します) :
t = string.Template('Hello $name, you won $$$amount') # (メモ: $$ は、文字 $ を表します)
t.substitute({'name': 'Eric', 'amount': 100000}) # -> u'Hello Eric, you won $100000'
file型). 組み込みの関数
open() [preferred] か、open()のエイリアス
file()によって生成されます. ほかのモジュールの関数からも同様に可能でしょう.| Operation | Result |
|---|---|
| f.close() | ファイル f をクローズ. |
| f.fileno() | ファイル f の fileno (fd) を得る . |
| f.flush() | ファイル f'の内部バッファをフラッシュする. |
| f.isatty() | ファイル f が tty-like デバイスに接続されていれば 1, それ以外は 0 を返す. |
| f.read([size]) | 最大で size bytes まで、ファイル f から読み出し stringオブジェクトとして返す. 引数 size が与えられていない場合, EOF まで読む. |
| f.readline() | f から1行読み込む. 返された行は \n の手がかりをもつ, ただし EOF である可能性は除く. |
| f.readlines() | readline() を使用して EOF まで読み込む. 読み込んだ行をリストとして返す. |
| f.xreadlines() | ファイル全体をメモリに格納せず、行単位で読み込むために sequence-like オブジェクトを返す. 2.2 以降は: for line in f を推奨 (以下を参照のこと). |
| for line in f: do something... | ファイルを行単位でイテレート(Iterate)する (readline を使用) |
| f.seek(offset[, whence=0]) | ファイル f の位置をセットする, C言語の stdio.h にある "fseek()" と同じ. whence == 0 ならば ファイル先頭からインデクシングをおこなう. whence == 1 ならば 現在位置から. whence == 2 ならば ファイル末尾から. |
| f.tell() | ファイル f の現在位置を返す (byte offset で計算). |
| f.write(str) | ファイル f に文字列を書き込む. |
| f.writelines(list) | ファイル f に文字列のリストを書き込む. EOL は付加されない. |
EOFError IOError set と frozenset (変更不可能な set) です. Sets は 順番のない(unordered) ユニークな(重複無しの)要素のコレクションです. エレメント(Elements) は ハッシュ可能です(hashable). frozensets はハッシュ可能 (したがって他のsetのエレメントになりうる) ですが sets はハッシュ不可能です. すべての sets は iterable です.Setクラス と ImmutableSetクラス がモジュール sets に存在します. このモジュールは 2.4 において, std ライブラリの組み込み型に追加される形で残っています.| Operation | Result |
|---|---|
| set/frozenset([iterable=None]) | [using built-in types] Builds a set or frozenset
from the given iterable (default: empty), e.g. set([1,2,3]), set("hello").
|
| Set/ImmutableSet([iterable=None]) | [using the sets module] Builds a Set or ImmutableSet
from the given iterable (default: empty), e.g. Set([1,2,3]).
|
| len(s) | Cardinality of set s. |
| elt in s / not in s | True if element elt belongs / does not belong to
set s. |
| for elt in s: process elt... | Iterates on elements of set s. |
| s1.issubset(s2) | True if every element in s1 is in s2. |
| s1.issuperset(s2) | True if every element in s2 is in s1. |
| s.add(elt) | Adds element elt to set s (if it doesn't already exist). |
| s.remove(elt) | Removes element elt from set s.
KeyError if element not found. |
| s.clear() | Removes all elements from this set (not on immutable sets!). |
| s1.intersection(s2) or s1&s2 | Returns a new Set with elements common to s1 and s2. |
| s1.union(s2) or s1|s2 | Returns a new Set with elements from both s1 and s2. |
| s1.difference(s2) or s1-s2 | Returns a new Set with elements in s1 but not in s2. |
| s1.symmetric_difference(s2) or s1^s2 | Returns a new Set with elements in either s1 or s2 but not both. |
| s.copy() | Returns a shallow copy of set s. |
| s.update(iterable) | Adds all values from iterable to set s. |
- Module objects
- Class objects
- Class instance objects
- Type objects (see module: types)
- File objects (see above)
- Slice objects
- Ellipsis object, used by extended slice notation (unique, named
Ellipsis)- Null object (unique, named
None)- XRange objects
- Callable types:
- User-defined (written in Python):
- User-defined Function objects
- User-defined Method objects
- Built-in (written in C):
- Built-in Function objects
- Built-in Method object
- Internal Types:
- Code objects (byte-compile executable Python code: bytecode)
- Frame objects (execution frames)
- Traceback objects (stack trace of an exception)
| Statement | Result |
|---|---|
| pass | Null ステートメント. 何もしない. |
| del name[, name]* | オブジェクトと name 間の、参照の関連付けを取り消す. 全く参照されなくなったオブジェクトは間接的に(又、自動的に)削除される. |
| print[>> fileobject,] [s1 [, s2 ]* [,] | sys.stdout もしくは fileobject に書き出し. 引数の間に空白を挿入する.
ステートメントの末尾が comma でない場合は改行する. インタラクティブ・モード中では Print は必要ない, 単に式(expression)をタイプするだけで値が出力される, ただし値が None でない場合に限る. |
| exec x [in globals [, locals]] | x を in 以下の名前空間内で実行. 標準では現在の名前空間で実行される. x は string, fileオブジェクトか functionオブジェクトでなくてはいけない. locals は Python標準の dict である必要はなく, 任意の mapping型 をとることができる. |
| callable(value,... [id=value] , [*args], [**kw]) | 関数 callable に引数を与えてコールする. 引数は name で与える, 関数で標準の引数の値が定義されていれば省略も可能である. 例: callable が "def callable(p1=1, p2=2)" と定義されていた場合"callable()" <=> "callable(1, 2)"*args は positional 引数のタプル. **kw は keyword 引数の辞書(dictionary). |
| Operator | Result |
Notes
|
|---|---|---|
| a = b | 基本的なアサイン - オブジェクト b を ラベル a に割り当てる |
(1)(2)
|
| a += b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a + b |
(3)
|
| a -= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a - b |
(3)
|
| a *= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a * b |
(3)
|
| a /= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a / b |
(3)
|
| a //= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a // b |
(3)
|
| a %= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a % b |
(3)
|
| a **= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a ** b |
(3)
|
| a &= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a & b |
(3)
|
| a |= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a | b |
(3)
|
| a ^= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a ^ b |
(3)
|
| a >>= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a >> b |
(3)
|
| a <<= b | ほぼ同じな記述 a = a << b |
(3)
|
Tip:first, second = l[0:2] # 等価な表現: first=l[0]; second=l[1]
[f, s] = range(2) #等価な表現: f=0; s=1
c1,c2,c3 = 'abc' #等価な表現:c1='a'; c2='b'; c3='c'
(a, b), c, (d, e, f) = ['ab', 'c', 'def'] #等価な表現:a='a'; b='b'; c='c'; d='d'; e='e'; f='f'
x,y = y,x は x と y の交換(swap)です.
a = b = c = 0
list1 = list2 = [1, 2, 3] # list1 と list2 が同じリストを参照する (l1 is l2)
| Statement | Result |
|---|---|
| if condition: suite [elif condition: suite]* [else: suite] |
一般的な if/else if/else の構文 |
| while condition: suite [else: suite] |
while 構文. The else 文 はループ終了後に実行される, ただし break でループを抜けた場合は実行されない. |
| for element in sequence: suite [else: suite] |
sequence の各要素を element に割り当てつつ繰り返し実行(iterate). 数列を生成して繰り返す場合は
組み込み関数range を使用するとよい. else suite
は break 以外でのループ終了時に実行される. |
| break | for や while ループをただちに抜ける. |
| continue | for や while ループ内で, 直ちに次のイテレーションへ移行する. |
| return [result] | Exits from 関数 (もしくは メソッド) を終了し result を返す (2個以上の値を返す場合は タプル(tuple) を使用する). result が与えられていない場合は, None を返す. |
| yield expression | (generator 関数の内部で, かつ try..finally ブロックのtryの外でのみ使用される, ). 評価された 式(expression) を "返す". |
| Statement | Result |
|---|---|
| assert expr[, message] | expr を評価する. false であった場合, 例外 AssertionError をメッセージと共に通知する. 2.3 より前では, __debug__ が 0 の時に抑制される. |
| try: suite1 [except [exception [, value]: suite2]+ [else: suite3] |
suite1 のステートメントが実行される. 例外が発生した場合, except節に列挙された中から該当する例外(exception)を探す. 例外がマッチするか except のみ記述されていた場合,
その節の suite を実行する. 例外が発生しなかった場合, else
ブロックが suite1 に続いて実行される. 例外(exception)が値を持っていた場合, 変数
value に代入される. exception には複数の例外のリストをタプル(tuple)で記述できる, 例
except(KeyError, NameError), val: print val. |
| try: suite1 finally: suite2 |
suite1 に記述されたステートメントが実行される. 例外が発生しなかった場合, suite2 を実行 (suite1 が return,break もしくは continue
ステートメントで終了していても実行される). 例外が発生した場合, suite2 を実行し, 直後に例外を再び発生させる. |
| raise exceptionInstance | Exception の派生クラスのインスタンスを発生させる (raise の好ましい やり方). |
| raise exceptionClass [, value [, traceback]] | 例外クラス(exceptionClass) をオプション引数 value を伴って発生させる. 例外のバックトレースを表示する場合, 引数 traceback でトレースバック・オブジェクトを指定する. |
| raise | 引数無しの raise ステートメントを実行すると, 現在の関数で発生した 直前の例外(last exception) を再度発生させる. |
class TextException(Exception): pass
try:
if bad:
raise TextException()
except Exception:
print 'Oops' # TextExceptionがExceptionのサブクラスであるので、この文は実行される
str()で文字列化されたインスタンスが出力される.StandardErrorから派生されている, StandardError自体はExceptionの派生クラスである.sys.path) にリストされたディレクトリに置かれている必要があります. 2.3 以降では, zip ファイルを指定することもできます [例 sys.path.insert(0, "theZipFile.zip")].__init__.py (空でもよい) の置かれたディレクトリにマップされます. [package.[package...].module.symbol のような形式で指定できます.| Statement | Result |
|---|---|
| import module1 [as name1] [, module2]* | モジュールをインポートする. Members of module must be referred to by qualifying with [package.]module name, e.g.:
import sys; print sys.argvas以下が記述されている場合, module1 は name1 にリネームされる. |
| from module import name1 [as othername1][, name2]* | モジュール module から現在の名前空間にnamesをインポートする.
from sys import argv; print argvas以下が記述されていた場合, name1 は othername1 にリネームされる. [2.4] ステートメント
from module import names の names のリストを括弧 '(' ')' で囲むことができる (PEP 328). |
| from module import * | module にある 全ての names をインポートする, ただし "_" で始まるものは除く. 使用はなるべく避けること, 名前の破壊に注意!
from sys import *; print argvモジュールの最上位レベルでのみ有効. module に __all__ アトリビュートが定義されている場合, __all__
に列挙されている名前のみがインポートされる.注意: " from package import *" はパッケージの __init__.py ファイルに定義されているシンボルのみをインポートします, パッケージの各モジュール内にある __init__.py ではありません! |
| global name1 [, name2] | Names are from global scope (usually meaning from module) rather than local (usually meaning only in function). E.g. in function without global statements, assuming "x" is name that hasn't been
used in function or module so far:- Try to read from "x" -> NameError- Try to write to "x" -> creates "x" local to function If "x" not defined in fct, but is in module, then: - Try to read from "x", gets value from module - Try to write to "x", creates "x" local to fct But note "x[0]=3" starts with search for "x", will use to global "x" if no local "x". |
引数は 値 で渡されます. したがって変更可能な(mutable)オブジェクトとして表現されている引数(入出力パラメータ)のみを書き換えることができます. 2つ以上の値を返す場合は タプル を使用します.def func_id ([param_list]):関数オブジェクトの生成して func_id という名前に関連付ける.
suiteparam_list ::= [id [, id]*]
id ::= value | id = value | *id | **id
def test (p1, p2 =5+3, *args, **kwargs):
class className [(super_class1[, super_class2]*)]:クラス・オブジェクトを生成し, 名前 className に関連付ける.
suite
suite には クラス・メソッドのローカル定義"defs" と クラス・アトリビュートのアサインが含まれます.
class MyClass (class1, class2): ...class1 と class2 の両方から継承するクラスオブジェクトを生成. 新しいクラスオブジェクトを "MyClass" という名前に関連付ける.
class MyClass: ...ベースクラスオブジェクトを生成 (何も継承しない). 新しいクラスオブジェクトを "MyClass" という名前に関連付ける.
class MyClass (object): ...new-style class/typeの生成 (
objectからの継承はnew-style
classになる). 新しいクラスオブジェクトを "MyClass" という名前に関連付ける.class c (c_parent):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def print_name(self):
print "I'm", self.name
def call_parent(self):
c_parent.print_name(self)
instance = c('tom')
print instance.name
'tom'
instance.print_name()
"I'm tom"
int, float, str,
list, tuple, dict, file は, 現在(2.2)は
ベースクラス object を継承した class のように振舞います, さらにこれらを継承するサブクラスも作成できます:New-style class はx = int(2) # 組み込みのキャスト関数はベース・タイプのコンストラクタです
y = 3 # <=> int(3) (リテラルは新しいベース・タイプのインスタンスです)
print type(x), type(y) # int, int
assert isinstance(x, int) # isinstance(x, types.IntType) の置き換え
assert issubclass(int, object) # ベース・タイプは ベース・クラス 'object' を継承する.
s = "hello" # <=> str("hello")
assert isinstance(s, str)
f = 2.3 # <=> float(2.3)
class MyInt(int): pass # ベース・タイプのサブクラス
x,y = MyInt(1), MyInt("2")
print x, y, x+y # => 1,2,3
class MyList(list): pass
l = MyList("hello")
print l # ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
object を継承します. Old-style class は継承しません.
class C:
"A description of C"
def __init__(self):
"A description of the constructor"
# etc.
c.__doc__ == "A description of C".
c.__init__.__doc__ == "A description of the constructor"
next()をもつオブジェクトであり, 次の要素を返すか
例外StopIteration を通知します.iter(obj) を使用すると obj のイテレータを取得できます, これは obj.__class__.__iter__() をコールします. __iter__() と next() を実装すると, 独自のイテレータをもたせることができます.__iter__() が実装されています;
辞書型(maps) はキーを列挙します; file は 行単位で列挙します. list や tuple を生成できます,
例 list(anIterator)for elt in
collection: if elt in collection:
x,y,z=
collection yieldを使うことで呼出し毎に値が返されます(呼び出し一回につき一つ), また return もしくは StopIteration()例外 によって値の列挙が終了したことを通知します. generator.next() をコールして, 例外 StopIteration が発生するまで次の値を取得しつづけます.
linkGenerator = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
for link in linkGenerator:
...process link...
from __future__ import generators (2.3以降でこの操作をする必要はありません) def genID(initialValue=0):
v = initialValue
while v < initialValue + 1000:
yield "ID_%05d" % v
v += 1
return # もしくは: raise StopIteration()
generator = genID() # ジェネレータの生成
for i in range(10): # 10個の値を生成(Generate)する
print generator.next()
__get__(self, obj, type=None) --> value__set__(self, obj, value) __delete__(self, obj)object の派生クラスなどの) new-style class の属性(attributes)やメソッドを記述したりアクセスしたりする際にディスクリプタを透過的に使用します.
[より詳しい情報])staticmethod(f) を使用して
メソッド f(x) を static (unbound) にします.f = classmethod(f) を使用して, メソッド
f(theClass, x) をクラス・メソッドにします.property の
インスタンスです, プロパティはアトリビュートのためのディスクリプタプロトコルを実装しています =>
propertyName = property(getter=None, setter=None,
deleter=None, description=None) を使用して, クラスの内部または外部でプロパティを定義します. 定義した後は propertyName もしくは
obj.propertyName でプロパティにアクセスします.__slots__
を使用したクラス・アトリビュートの定義により, 割り当て可能なアトリビュート名のリストを制限できます,
これによってアトリビュート名のミスタイプを防止できます (ミスタイプをしてもPythonが発見してくれることは普通ないので, 新しいアトリビュートの生成を引き起こしてしまう),
例 __slots__ = ('x', 'y')@D
on the line preceding the function/method it decorates :
@D
def f(): ...
上記は次のような記述と等価です:
def f(): ...
f = D(f)
@A @B @C
def f(): ...
上記は次のような記述と等価です:
f = A(B(C(f)))
@A @B @C(args)
def f(): ...
_deco = C(args)
f = A(B(_deco(f)))@staticmethod と @classmethod は、等価な記述 f = staticmethod(f) と f = classmethod(f) をよりエレガントな形式に置き換えたものです.lambda [param_list]: returnedExpr無名の関数を生成します.
returnedExpr は式(expression)でなければいけません, 文(statement)は許されません (例えば, "if xx:...", "print xxx", などは不可.) これに加えて改行を含めることもできません. 多くの場合 lambda は filter(), map(), reduce() 関数や, GUIコールバック のために使用されます.
リスト内包表記(List comprehensions)result = [expression for item1 in sequence1 [if condition1]上記は 次の記述と等価である:
[for item2 in sequence2 ... for itemN in sequenceN]
]result = []
for item1 in sequence1:
for item2 in sequence2:
...
for itemN in sequenceN:
if (condition1) and further conditions:
result.append(expression)
Nested scopes
2.2より、スコープの入れ子をfrom __future__ import nested_scopesのように明示的に有効にする必要が無くなりました, スコープの入れ子は常に使用可能です.
_builtin__ に定義されおり、自動的にインポートされます.
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| __import__(name[, globals[,locals[,from list]]]) | 与えられたコンテキストの内部へモジュールをインポートします (詳細は library reference を参照) |
| abs(x) | 数値 x の絶対値を返す. |
| apply(f, args[, keywords]) | 引数 args と オプション・キーワード をともなって 関数/メソッド f を呼び出す. 2.3から廃止された, apply(func, args, keywords) の代わりに func(*args, **keywords) を使用すること [詳細をみる] |
| buffer(object[, offset[, size]]) | object のスライスから Buffer を返す, 引数 object は(文字列, アレイ, バッファーなどの)バッファ呼び出しインタフェースをサポートしていなければならない.
非必須組み込み関数である, [詳細をみる] |
| callable(x) | x が呼び出し可能である場合 True, そうでない場合 False を返す. |
| chr(i) | アスキーコードが整数 i となるような文字1字からなる文字列を返す. |
| classmethod(function) | function のクラスメソッドを返す. クラスメソッドは, インスタンス・メソッドが暗黙の第一引数としてインスタンスをとるように, 第一引数としてクラスをとります. クラスメソッドの宣言は以下ように記述します:class C: クラスメソッドの呼び出しは クラスから C.f() もしくは インスタンスから C().f() のようにおこないます.
インスタンスから呼び出した場合, 所属クラスを除く情報以外は無視されます. 導出クラス(derived class)のクラスメソッドが呼び出された場合, 暗黙的な第一引数として導出クラスオブジェクトが渡されます.Since 2.4より 代替としてdecorator構文が使用可能です: class C: |
| cmp(x,y) | x と y を比較した結果が < ならば 負, == ならば 0, > ならば 正 の値を返す. |
| coerce(x,y) | Returns a tuple of the two numeric arguments converted to a common type. Non essential function, see [details] |
| compile(string, filename, kind[, flags[, dont_inherit]]) | Compiles string into a code object. filename is used in error message, can be any string.
It is usually the file from which the code was read, or eg. '<string>' if not read from file.
kind can be 'eval' if string is a single stmt, or 'single' which prints the output of
expression statements that evaluate to something else than None, or be 'exec'.
New args flags and dont_inherit concern future statements. |
| complex(real[, image]) | Creates a complex object (can also be done using J or j suffix, e.g. 1+3J). |
| delattr(obj, name) | Deletes the attribute named name of object obj <=> del obj.name |
| dict([mapping-or-sequence]) | Returns a new dictionary initialized from the optional argument (or an empty dictionary if no argument). Argument may be a sequence (or anything iterable) of pairs (key,value). |
| dir([object]) | Without args, returns the list of names in the current local symbol table. With a module, class or class instance object as arg, returns the list of names in its attr. dictionary. |
| divmod(a,b) | Returns tuple (a/b, a%b) |
| enumerate(iterable) | Iterator returning pairs (index, value) of iterable, e.g. List(enumerate('Py')) -> [(0, 'P'), (1, 'y')]. |
| eval(s[, globals[, locals]]) | Evaluates string s, representing a single python expression, in (optional) globals,
locals contexts. s must have no NUL's or newlines. s can also be a code object.
locals can be any mapping type, not only a regular Python dict. Example: x = 1; assert eval('x + 1') == 2
(To execute statements rather than a single expression, use Python statement exec or
built-in function execfile)
|
| execfile(file[, globals[,locals]]) | Executes a file without creating a new module, unlike import. locals can be any mapping type, not only a regular Python dict. |
| file(filename[,mode[,bufsize]]) | Opens a file and returns a new file object. Alias for open. |
| filter(function,sequence) | Constructs a list from those elements of sequence for which function returns true. function takes one parameter. |
| float(x) | Converts a number or a string to floating point. |
| getattr(object,name[,default])) | Gets attribute called name from object, e.g. getattr(x, 'f') <=> x.f).
If not found, raises AttributeError or returns default if specified. |
| globals() | Returns a dictionary containing the current global variables. |
| hasattr(object, name) | Returns true if object has an attribute called name. |
| hash(object) | Returns the hash value of the object (if it has one). |
| help([object]) | Invokes the built-in help system. No argument -> interactive help; if object is a string (name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation topic), a help page is printed on the console; otherwise a help page on object is generated. |
| hex(x) | Converts a number x to a hexadecimal string. |
| id(object) | Returns a unique integer identifier for object. |
| input([prompt]) | Prints prompt if given. Reads input and evaluates it. Uses line editing
/ history if module readline available. |
| int(x[, base]) | Converts a number or a string to a plain integer. Optional base parameter specifies base from which to convert string values. |
| intern(aString) | Enters aString in the table of interned strings and returns the string. Since 2.3, interned strings are no longer 'immortal' (never garbage collected), see [details] |
| isinstance(obj, classInfo) | Returns true if obj is an instance of class classInfo or an
object of type classInfo (classInfo may also be a tuple of classes or types).
If issubclass(A,B) then isinstance(x,A) => isinstance(x,B) |
| issubclass(class1, class2) | Returns true if class1 is derived from class2 (or if class1 is class2). |
| iter(obj[,sentinel]) | Returns an iterator on obj. If sentinel is absent, obj must be a collection
implementing either __iter__() or __getitem__(). If sentinel is given,
obj will be called with no arg; if the value returned is equal to sentinel,
StopIteration will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.
See Iterators. |
| len(obj) | Returns the length (the number of items) of an object (sequence, dictionary, or instance of class implementing __len__). |
| list([seq]) | Creates an empty list or a list with same elements as seq. seq may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If seq is already a list, returns a copy of it. |
| locals() | Returns a dictionary containing current local variables. |
| long(x[, base]) | Converts a number or a string to a long integer. Optional base parameter specifies the base from which to convert string values. |
| map(function, sequence[, sequence, ...]) | Returns a list of the results of applying function to each item from sequence(s).
If more than one sequence is given, the function is called with an argument list consisting of the
corresponding item of each sequence, substituting None for missing values when not all sequences have
the same length. If function is None, returns a list of the items of the sequence
(or a list of tuples if more than one sequence).
=> You might also consider using list comprehensions instead of map(). |
| max(seq[, args...]) | With a single argument seq, returns the largest item of a non-empty sequence (such as a string, tuple or list). With more than one argument, returns the largest of the arguments. |
| min(seq[, args...]) | With a single argument seq, returns the smallest item of a non-empty sequence (such as a string, tuple or list). With more than one argument, returns the smallest of the arguments. |
| oct(x) | Converts a number to an octal string. |
| open(filename [, mode='r', [bufsize]]) | Returns a new file object. See also alias file().
Use codecs.open()
instead to open an encoded file and provide transparent encoding / decoding.
|
| ord(c) | Returns integer ASCII value of c (a string of len 1). Works with Unicode char. |
| pow(x, y [, z]) | Returns x to power y [modulo z]. See also ** operator. |
| range(start [,end [, step]]) | Returns list of ints from >= start and < end. With 1 arg, list from 0..arg-1 With 2 args, list from start..end-1 With 3 args, list from start up to end by step |
| raw_input([prompt]) | Prints prompt if given, then reads string from std input (no trailing \n). See also input(). |
| reduce(f, list [, init]) | Applies the binary function f to the items of list so as to reduce the list to a single value. If init is given, it is "prepended" to list. |
| reload(module) | Re-parses and re-initializes an already imported module. Useful in interactive mode, if you want to reload a module after fixing it. If module was syntactically correct but had an error in initialization, must import it one more time before calling reload(). |
| repr(object) | Returns a string containing a printable and if possible evaluable representation of an object.
<=> `object` (using backquotes). Class redefinable (__repr__).
See also str() |
| round(x, n=0) | Returns the floating point value x rounded to n digits after the decimal point. |
| setattr(object, name, value) | This is the counterpart of getattr().setattr(o, 'foobar', 3) <=> o.foobar = 3. Creates attribute if it doesn't exist! |
| slice([start,] stop[, step]) | Returns a slice object representing a range, with R/O attributes: start, stop, step. |
| staticmethod(function) | Returns a static method for function. A static method does not receive an implicit first argument.
To declare a static method, use this idiom:class C:Then call it on the class C.f() or on an instance C().f().
The instance is ignored except for its class.Since 2.4 you can alternatively use the decorator notation: class C: |
| str(object) | Returns a string containing a nicely printable representation of an object. Class overridable (__str__). See also repr(). |
| sum(iterable[, start=0]) | Returns the sum of a sequence of numbers (not strings), plus the value of parameter. Returns start when the sequence is empty. |
| super( type[, object-or-type]) | Returns the superclass of type. If the second argument is omitted the super object returned is unbound.
If the second argument is an object, isinstance(obj, type) must be true. If the second
argument is a type, issubclass(type2, type) must be true. Typical use:class C(B): |
| tuple([seq]) | Creates an empty tuple or a tuple with same elements as seq. seq may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If seq is already a tuple, returns itself (not a copy). |
| type(obj) | Returns a type object [see module types] representing the type of obj. Example: import types if type(x) == types.StringType: print 'It is a string'. NB: it is better to use instead: if isinstance(x, types.StringType)... |
| unichr(code) | Returns a unicode string 1 char long with given code. |
| unicode(string[, encoding[,error]]]) | Creates a Unicode string from a 8-bit string, using the given encoding name and error treatment
('strict', 'ignore',or 'replace'}. For objects which provide a __unicode__()
method, it will call this method without arguments to create a Unicode string. |
| vars([object]) | Without arguments, returns a dictionary corresponding to the current local symbol table. With a module, class or class instance object as argument, returns a dictionary corresponding to the object's symbol table. Useful with the "%" string formatting operator. |
| xrange(start [, end [, step]]) | Like range(), but doesn't actually store entire list all at once. Good to use in "for" loops when there is a big range and little memory. |
| zip(seq1[, seq2,...]) | Returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the nth element of each of the argument sequences.
Since 2.4 returns an empty list if called with no arguments (was raising
TypeError before). |
exception.args is a tuple of the arguments passed to the constructor.
next() method to signal that there are no further values. sys.exit() warning)
Exception root class.
errno value. import to find module or name. TypeError or more precise.
class C:
def __init__(self, v): self.value = v
def __add__(self, r): return self.value + r
a = C(3) # sort of like calling C.__init__(a, 3)
a + 4 # is equivalent to a.__add__(4)
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| __new__(cls[, ...]) | Instance creation (on construction). If __new__ returns an instance of cls then __init__ is called with the rest of the arguments (...), otherwise __init__ is not invoked. More details here. |
| __init__(self, args) | Instance initialization (on construction) |
| __del__(self) | Called on object demise (refcount becomes 0) |
| __repr__(self) | repr() and `...` conversions |
| __str__(self) | str() and print statement |
| __cmp__(self,other) | Compares self to other and returns <0, 0, or >0. Implements >, <, == etc... |
| __lt__(self, other) | Called for self < other comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __le__(self, other) | Called for self <= other comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __gt__(self, other) | Called for self > other comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __ge__(self, other) | Called for self >= other comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __eq__(self, other) | Called for self == other comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __ne__(self, other) | Called for self != other (and self <> other) comparisons. Can return anything, or can raise an exception. |
| __hash__(self) | Compute a 32 bit hash code; hash() and dictionary ops |
| __nonzero__(self) | Returns 0 or 1 for truth value testing. when this method is not defined, __len__() is called
if defined; otherwise all class instances are considered "true". |
| __getattr__(self,name) | Called when attribute lookup doesn't find name. See also __getattribute__. |
| __getattribute__( self, name) | Same as __getattr__ but always called whenever the attribute name is accessed. |
| __setattr__(self, name, value) | Called when setting an attribute (inside, don't use "self.name = value", use instead "self.__dict__[name] = value") |
| __delattr__(self, name) | Called to delete attribute <name>. |
| __call__(self, *args, **kwargs) | Called when an instance is called as function: obj(arg1, arg2, ...) is a shorthand for
obj.__call__(arg1, arg2, ...). |
See list in the operator module. Operator function names are provided with 2 variants,
with or without leading & trailing '__' (e.g. __add__ or add).
| Operator | Special method |
|---|---|
| self + other | __add__(self, other) |
| self - other | __sub__(self, other) |
| self * other | __mul__(self, other) |
| self / other | __div__(self, other) or
__truediv__(self,other) if __future__.division is active. |
| self // other | __floordiv__(self, other) |
| self % other | __mod__(self, other) |
| divmod(self,other) | __divmod__(self, other) |
| self ** other | __pow__(self, other) |
| self & other | __and__(self, other) |
| self ^ other | __xor__(self, other) |
| self | other | __or__(self, other) |
| self << other | __lshift__(self, other) |
| self >> other | __rshift__(self, other) |
| nonzero(self) | __nonzero__(self) (used in boolean testing) |
| -self | __neg__(self) |
| +self | __pos__(self) |
| abs(self) | __abs__(self) |
| ~self | __invert__(self) (bitwise) |
| self += other | __iadd__(self, other) |
| self -= other | __isub__(self, other) |
| self *= other | __imul__(self, other) |
| self /= other | __idiv__(self, other) or
__itruediv__(self,other) if __future__.division is in effect. |
| self //= other | __ifloordiv__(self, other) |
| self %= other | __imod__(self, other) |
| self **= other | __ipow__(self, other) |
| self &= other | __iand__(self, other) |
| self ^= other | __ixor__(self, other) |
| self |= other | __ior__(self, other) |
| self <<= other | __ilshift__(self, other) |
| self >>= other | __irshift__(self, other) |
| built-in function | Special method |
|---|---|
| int(self) | __int__(self) |
| long(self) | __long__(self) |
| float(self) | __float__(self) |
| complex(self) | __complex__(self) |
| oct(self) | __oct__(self) |
| hex(self) | __hex__(self) |
| coerce(self, other) | __coerce__(self, other) |
__add__(a, 3) __radd__(a, 3) | Operation | Special method | Notes | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All sequences and maps : | |||||||||||||||||||
| len(self) | __len__(self) | length of object, >= 0. Length 0 == false | |||||||||||||||||
| self[k] | __getitem__(self, k) | Get element at indice /key k (indice starts at 0). Or, if k is a slice object, return a slice. | |||||||||||||||||
| self[k] = value | __setitem__(self, k, value) | Set element at indice/key/slice k. | |||||||||||||||||
| del self[k] | __delitem__(self, k) | Delete element at indice/key/slice k. | |||||||||||||||||
| elt in self elt not in self |
__contains__(self, elt) not __contains__(self, elt) |
More efficient than std iteration thru sequence. | |||||||||||||||||
| iter(self) | __iter__(self) | Returns an iterator on elements (keys for mappings <=> self.iterkeys()). See iterators. | |||||||||||||||||
| Sequences, general methods, plus: | |||||||||||||||||||
| self[i:j] | __getslice__(self, i, j) | Deprecated since 2.0, replaced by __getitem__ with a slice object as parameter. |
|||||||||||||||||
| self[i:j] = seq | __setslice__(self, i, j,seq) | Deprecated since 2.0, replaced by __setitem__ with a slice object as parameter. |
|||||||||||||||||
| del self[i:j] | __delslice__(self, i, j) | Same as self[i:j] = [] - Deprecated since 2.0, replaced by __delitem__ with a slice object as parameter. |
|||||||||||||||||
| self * n | __mul__(self, n) | (__repeat__ in the official doc but doesn't work!) | |||||||||||||||||
| self + other | __add__(self, other) | (__concat__ in the official doc but doesn't work!) | |||||||||||||||||
| Mappings, general methods, plus: | |||||||||||||||||||
| hash(self) | __hash__(self) | hashed value of object self is used for dictionary keys | |||||||||||||||||
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| |
dir() instead |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __doc__ | (string/None, R/O): doc string (<=> __dict__['__doc__']) |
| __name__ | (string, R/O): module name (also in __dict__['__name__']) |
| __dict__ | (dict, R/O): module's name space |
| __file__ | (string/undefined, R/O): pathname of .pyc, .pyo or .pyd (undef for modules statically linked to the interpreter) |
| __path__ | (list/undefined, R/W): List of directory paths where to find the package (for packages only). |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __doc__ | (string/None, R/W): doc string (<=> __dict__['__doc__']) |
| __name__ | (string, R/W): class name (also in __dict__['__name__']) |
| __module__ | (string, R/W): module name in which the class was defined |
| __bases__ | (tuple, R/W): parent classes |
| __dict__ | (dict, R/W): attributes (class name space) |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __class__ | (class, R/W): instance's class |
| __dict__ | (dict, R/W): attributes |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __doc__ | (string/None, R/W): doc string |
| __name__ | (string, R/O): function name |
| func_doc | (R/W): same as __doc__ |
| func_name | (R/O, R/W from 2.4): same as __name__ |
| func_defaults | (tuple/None, R/W): default args values if any |
| func_code | (code, R/W): code object representing the compiled function body |
| func_globals | (dict, R/O): ref to dictionary of func global variables |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __doc__ | (string/None, R/O): doc string |
| __name__ | (string, R/O): method name (same as im_func.__name__) |
| im_class | (class, R/O): class defining the method (may be a base class) |
| im_self | (instance/None, R/O): target instance object (None if unbound) |
| im_func | (function, R/O): function object |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| __doc__ | (string/None, R/O): doc string |
| __name__ | (string, R/O): function name |
| __self__ | [methods only] target object |
| |
dir() instead. |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| co_name | (string, R/O): function name |
| co_argcount | (int, R/0): number of positional args |
| co_nlocals | (int, R/O): number of local vars (including args) |
| co_varnames | (tuple, R/O): names of local vars (starting with args) |
| co_code | (string, R/O): sequence of bytecode instructions |
| co_consts | (tuple, R/O): literals used by the bytecode, 1st one is function doc (or None) |
| co_names | (tuple, R/O): names used by the bytecode |
| co_filename | (string, R/O): filename from which the code was compiled |
| co_firstlineno | (int, R/O): first line number of the function |
| co_lnotab | (string, R/O): string encoding bytecode offsets to line numbers. |
| co_stacksize | (int, R/O): required stack size (including local vars) |
| co_flags | (int, R/O): flags for the interpreter bit 2 set if fct uses "*arg" syntax, bit 3 set if fct uses '**keywords' syntax |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| f_back | (frame/None, R/O): previous stack frame (toward the caller) |
| f_code | (code, R/O): code object being executed in this frame |
| f_locals | (dict, R/O): local vars |
| f_globals | (dict, R/O): global vars |
| f_builtins | (dict, R/O): built-in (intrinsic) names |
| f_restricted | (int, R/O): flag indicating whether fct is executed in restricted mode |
| f_lineno | (int, R/O): current line number |
| f_lasti | (int, R/O): precise instruction (index into bytecode) |
| f_trace | (function/None, R/W): debug hook called at start of each source line |
| f_exc_type | (Type/None, R/W): Most recent exception type |
| f_exc_value | (any, R/W): Most recent exception value |
| f_exc_traceback | (traceback/None, R/W): Most recent exception traceback |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| tb_next | (frame/None, R/O): next level in stack trace (toward the frame where the exception occurred) |
| tb_frame | (frame, R/O): execution frame of the current level |
| tb_lineno | (int, R/O): line number where the exception occured |
| tb_lasti | (int, R/O): precise instruction (index into bytecode) |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| start | (any/None, R/O): lowerbound, included |
| stop | (any/None, R/O): upperbound, excluded |
| step | (any/None, R/O): step value |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| real | (float, R/O): real part |
| imag | (float, R/O): imaginary part |
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| tolist | (Built-in method, R/O): ? |
| Variable | Content |
|---|---|
| argv | The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script. sys.argv[0] is the script name. |
| builtin_module_names | A list of strings giving the names of all modules written in C that are linked into this interpreter. |
| byteorder | Native byte order, either 'big'(-endian) or 'little'(-endian). |
| check_interval | How often to check for thread switches or signals (measured in number of virtual machine instructions) |
| copyright | A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python interpreter. |
| exec_prefix prefix |
Root directory where platform-dependent Python files are installed, e.g. 'C:\\Python23', '/usr'. |
| executable | Name of executable binary of the Python interpreter (e.g. 'C:\\Python23\\python.exe', '/usr/bin/python') |
| exitfunc | User can set to a parameterless function. It will get called before interpreter exits.
Deprecated since 2.4. Code should be using the existing
atexit module |
| last_type, last_value, last_traceback | Set only when an exception not handled and interpreter prints an error. Used by debuggers. |
| maxint | Maximum positive value for integers. Since 2.2 integers and long integers are unified, thus integers have no limit. |
| maxunicode | Largest supported code point for a Unicode character. |
| modules | Dictionary of modules that have already been loaded. |
| path | Search path for external modules. Can be modified by program.
sys.path[0] == directory of script currently executed. |
| platform | The current platform, e.g. "sunos5", "win32" |
| ps1, ps2 | Prompts to use in interactive mode, normally ">>>" and "..." |
| stdin, stdout, stderr | File objects used for I/O. One can redirect by assigning a new file object
to them (or any object: with a method write(string)
for stdout/stderr, or with a method readline() for stdin).
__stdin__,__stdout__ and __stderr__ are the default values. |
| version | String containing version info about Python interpreter. |
| version_info | Tuple containing Python version info - (major, minor, micro, level, serial). |
| winver | Version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms (e.g. '2.2'). |
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| name | name of O/S-specific module (e.g. "posix", "mac", "nt") |
| path | O/S-specific module for path manipulations. On Unix, os.path.split() <=> posixpath.split() |
| curdir | string used to represent current directory (eg '.') |
| pardir | string used to represent parent directory (eg '..') |
| sep | string used to separate directories ('/' or '\').
Tip: Use os.path.join() to build portable paths. |
| altsep | Alternate separator if applicable (None otherwise) |
| pathsep | character used to separate search path components (as in $PATH), eg. ';' for windows. |
| linesep | line separator as used in text files, ie '\n' on Unix, '\r\n' on Dos/Win, '\r' on Mac. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| makedirs(path[, mode=0777]) | Recursive directory creation (create required intermediary dirs); os.error if fails. |
| removedirs(path) | Recursive directory delete (delete intermediary empty dirs);
fails (os.error) if the directories are not empty. |
| renames(old, new) | Recursive directory or file renaming; os.error if fails. |
| urandom(n) | Returns a string containing n bytes of random data. |
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| environ | dictionary of environment variables, e.g. posix.environ['HOME']. |
| error | exception raised on POSIX-related error. Corresponding value is tuple of errno code and perror() string. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| chdir(path) | Changes current directory to path. |
| chmod(path, mode) | Changes the mode of path to the numeric mode |
| close(fd) | Closes file descriptor fd opened with posix.open. |
| _exit(n) | Immediate exit, with no cleanups, no SystemExit, etc... Should use this to exit a child process. |
| execv(p, args) | "Become" executable p with args args |
| getcwd() | Returns a string representing the current working directory. |
| getcwdu() | Returns a Unicode string representing the current working directory. |
| getpid() | Returns the current process id. |
| getsid() | Calls the system call getsid() [Unix]. |
| fork() | Like C's fork(). Returns 0 to child, child pid to parent [Not on Windows]. |
| kill(pid, signal) | Like C's kill [Not on Windows]. |
| listdir(path) | Lists (base)names of entries in directory path, excluding '.' and '..'. If path is a Unicode string, so will be the returned strings. |
| lseek(fd, pos, how) | Sets current position in file fd to position pos, expressed as an offset relative to beginning of file (how=0), to current position (how=1), or to end of file (how=2). |
| mkdir(path[, mode]) | Creates a directory named path with numeric mode (default 0777). |
| open(file, flags, mode) | Like C's open(). Returns file descriptor. Use file object functions rather than this low level ones. |
| pipe() | Creates a pipe. Returns pair of file descriptors (r, w) [Not on Windows]. |
| popen(command, mode='r', bufSize=0) | Opens a pipe to or from command. Result is a file object to read to or write from, as indicated by mode being 'r' or 'w'. Use it to catch a command output ('r' mode), or to feed it ('w' mode). |
| remove(path) | See unlink. |
| rename(old, new) | Renames/moves the file or directory old to new. [error if target name already exists] |
| renames(old, new) | Recursive directory or file renaming function. Works like rename(), except creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the old name will be pruned away using removedirs(). |
| rmdir(path) | Removes the empty directory path |
| read(fd, n) | Reads n bytes from file descriptor fd and return as string. |
| stat(path) | Returns st_mode, st_ino, st_dev, st_nlink, st_uid,st_gid, st_size, st_atime, st_mtime, st_ctime. [st_ino, st_uid, st_gid are dummy on Windows] |
| system(command) | Executes string command in a subshell. Returns exit status of subshell (usually 0 means OK). Since 2.4 use subprocess.call() instead. |
| times() | Returns accumulated CPU times in sec (user, system, children's user, children's sys, elapsed real time) [3 last not on Windows]. |
| unlink(path) | Unlinks ("deletes") the file (not dir!) path. Same as: remove. |
| utime(path, (aTime, mTime)) | Sets the access & modified time of the file to the given tuple of values. |
| wait() | Waits for child process completion. Returns tuple of pid, exit_status [Not on Windows]. |
| waitpid(pid, options) | Waits for process pid to complete. Returns tuple of pid, exit_status [Not on Windows]. |
| walk(top[, topdown=True [, onerror=None]]) | Generates a list of file names in a directory tree, by walking the tree either top down or bottom up.
For each directory in the tree rooted at directory top (including top itself), it yields a
3-tuple (dirpath, dirnames, filenames) - more info here.
See also os.path.walk(). |
| write(fd, str) | Writes str to file fd. Returns nb of bytes written. |
os.path.exists(p))!| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| abspath(p) | Returns absolute path for path p, taking current working dir in account. |
| commonprefix(list) | Returns the longuest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a prefix of all paths in list (or '' if list empty). |
| dirname/basename(p) | directory and name parts of the path p. See also split. |
| exists(p) | True if string p is an existing path (file or directory).
See also lexists. |
| expanduser(p) | Returns string that is (a copy of) p with "~" expansion done. |
| expandvars(p) | Returns string that is (a copy of) p with environment vars expanded. [Windows: case significant; must use Unix: $var notation, not %var%] |
| getmtime(filepath) | Returns last modification time of filepath (integer nb of seconds since epoch). |
| getatime(filepath) | Returns last access time of filepath (integer nb of seconds since epoch). |
| getsize(filepath) | Returns the size in bytes of filepath. os.error if file inexistent or inaccessible. |
| isabs(p) | True if string p is an absolute path. |
| isdir(p) | True if string p is a directory. |
| islink(p) | True if string p is a symbolic link. |
| ismount(p) | True if string p is a mount point [true for all dirs on Windows]. |
| join(p[,q[,...]]) | Joins one or more path components intelligently. |
| lexists(path) | True if the file specified by path exists, whether or not it's a symbolic link (unlike exists). |
| split(p) | Splits p into (head, tail) where tail is last pathname component and
head is everything leading up to that. <=> (dirname(p), basename(p)) |
| splitdrive(p) | Splits path p in a pair ('drive:', tail) [Windows] |
| splitext(p) | Splits into (root, ext) where last comp of root contains no periods and ext is empty or starts with a period. |
| walk(p, visit, arg) | Calls the function visit with arguments (arg, dirname, names)
for each directory recursively in the directory tree rooted at p (including
p itself if it's a dir). The argument dirname specifies the visited directory,
the argument names lists the files in the directory. The visit function may
modify names to influence the set of directories visited below dirname, e.g.
to avoid visiting certain parts of the tree. See also os.walk() for an alternative. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| copy(src, dest) | Copies the contents of file src to file dest, retaining file permissions. |
| copytree(src, dest[, symlinks]) | Recursively copies an entire directory tree rooted at src into dest (which should not already exist). If symlinks is true, links in src are kept as such in dest. |
| move(src, dest) | Recursively moves a file or directory to a new location. |
| rmtree(path[, ignore_errors[, onerror]]) | Deletes an entire directory tree, ignoring errors if ignore_errors is true, or calling onerror(func, path, sys.exc_info()) if supplied, with arguments func (faulty function), and path (concerned file). |
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| altzone | Signed offset of local DST timezone in sec west of the 0th meridian. |
| daylight | Non zero if a DST timezone is specified. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| time() | Returns a float representing UTC time in seconds since the epoch. |
| gmtime(secs), localtime(secs) | Returns a tuple representing time : (year aaaa, month(1-12), day(1-31), hour(0-23), minute(0-59), second(0-59), weekday(0-6, 0 is monday), Julian day(1-366), daylight flag(-1,0 or 1)). |
| asctime(timeTuple), | 24-character string of the following form: 'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'. |
| strftime(format, timeTuple) | Returns a formated string representing time. See format in table below. |
| mktime(tuple) | Inverse of localtime(). Returns a float. |
| strptime(string[, format]) | Parses a formated string representing time, return tuple as in gmtime(). |
| sleep(secs) | Suspends execution for secs seconds. secs can be a float. |
| Directive | Meaning |
|---|---|
%a |
Locale's abbreviated weekday name. |
%A |
Locale's full weekday name. |
%b |
Locale's abbreviated month name. |
%B |
Locale's full month name. |
%c |
Locale's appropriate date and time representation. |
%d |
Day of the month as a decimal number [01,31]. |
%H |
Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number [00,23]. |
%I |
Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number [01,12]. |
%j |
Day of the year as a decimal number [001,366]. |
%m |
Month as a decimal number [01,12]. |
%M |
Minute as a decimal number [00,59]. |
%p |
Locale's equivalent of either AM or PM. |
%S |
Second as a decimal number [00,61]. Yes, 61 ! |
%U |
Week number of the year (Sunday as the first day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53]. All days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are considered to be in week 0. |
%w |
Weekday as a decimal number [0(Sunday),6]. |
%W |
Week number of the year (Monday as the first day of the week) as a decimal number [00,53]. All days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are considered to be in week 0. |
%x |
Locale's appropriate date representation. |
%X |
Locale's appropriate time representation. |
%y |
Year without century as a decimal number [00,99]. |
%Y |
Year with century as a decimal number. |
%Z |
Time zone name (or by no characters if no time zone exists). |
%% |
A literal "%" character. |
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| digits | The string '0123456789'. |
| hexdigits, octdigits | Legal hexadecimal & octal digits. |
| letters, uppercase, lowercase, whitespace | Strings containing the appropriate characters. |
| ascii_letters, ascii_lowercase, ascii_uppercase | Same, taking the current locale in account. |
| index_error | Exception raised by index() if substring not found. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| expandtabs(s, tabSize) | Returns a copy of string s with tabs expanded. |
| find/rfind(s, sub[, start=0[, end=0]) | Returns the lowest/highest index in s where the substring sub is found such that sub is wholly contained in s[start:end]. Return -1 if sub not found. |
| ljust/rjust/center(s, width[, fillChar=' ']) | Returns a copy of string s; left/right justified/centered in a field of given width, padded with spaces or the given character. s is never truncated. |
| lower/upper(s) | Returns a string that is (a copy of) s in lowercase/uppercase. |
| split(s[, sep=whitespace[, maxsplit=0]]) | Returns a list containing the words of the string s, using the string sep as a separator. |
| rsplit(s[, sep=whitespace[, maxsplit=0]]) | Same as split above but starts splitting from the end of string, e.g.
'A,B,C'.split(',', 1) == ['A', 'B,C'] but 'A,B,C'.rsplit(',', 1) == ['A,B', 'C'] |
| join(words[, sep=' ']) | Concatenates a list or tuple of words with intervening separators; inverse of split. |
| replace(s, old, new[, maxsplit=0] | Returns a copy of string s with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new. Limits to maxsplit first substitutions if specified. |
| strip(s[, chars=None]) | Returns a string that is (a copy of) s without leading and trailing chars
(default: whitespace). Also: lstrip, rstrip. |
r'\w*')
to literalize backslashes. | Form | Description |
|---|---|
| . | Matches any character (including newline if DOTALL flag specified). |
| ^ | Matches start of the string (of every line in MULTILINE mode). |
| $ | Matches end of the string (of every line in MULTILINE mode). |
| * | 0 or more of preceding regular expression (as many as possible). |
| + | 1 or more of preceding regular expression (as many as possible). |
| ? | 0 or 1 occurrence of preceding regular expression. |
| *?, +?, ?? | Same as *, + and ? but matches as few characters as possible. |
| {m,n} | Matches from m to n repetitions of preceding RE. |
| {m,n}? | Idem, attempting to match as few repetitions as possible. |
| [ ] | Defines character set: e.g. '[a-zA-Z]' to match all letters (see also \w \S). |
| [^ ] | Defines complemented character set: matches if char is NOT in set. |
| \ | Escapes special chars '*?+&$|()' and introduces special sequences (see below). Due to Python string rules, write as '\\' or r'\' in the pattern string. |
| \\ | Matches a litteral '\'; due to Python string rules, write as '\\\\' in pattern string, or better using raw string: r'\\'. |
| | | Specifies alternative: 'foo|bar' matches 'foo' or 'bar'. |
| (...) | Matches any RE inside (), and delimits a group. |
| (?:...) | Idem but doesn't delimit a group (non capturing parenthesis). |
| (?P<name>...) | Matches any RE inside (), and delimits a named group, (e.g. r'(?P<id>[a-zA-Z_]\w*)' defines a group named id). |
| (?P=name) | Matches whatever text was matched by the earlier group named name. |
| (?=...) | Matches if ... matches next, but doesn't consume any of the string e.g. 'Isaac (?=Asimov)' matches 'Isaac' only if followed by 'Asimov'. |
| (?!...) | Matches if ... doesn't match next. Negative of (?=...). |
| (?<=...) | Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a match for ... that ends at the current position. This is called a positive lookbehind assertion. |
| (?<!...) | Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a match for .... This is called a negative lookbehind assertion. |
| (?(group)A|B) | [2.4+] group is either a numeric group ID or a group name defined with (?Pgroup...)
earlier in the expression. If the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern A
will be tested against the string; if the group didn't match, the pattern B will be used instead. |
| (?#...) | A comment; ignored. |
| (?letters) | letters is one or more of 'i','L', 'm', 's', 'u', 'x'. Sets the
corresponding flags (re.I, re.L, re.M, re.S, re.U, re.X) for the
entire RE. See the compile() function for equivalent flags. |
| Sequence | Description |
|---|---|
| number | Matches content of the group of the same number; groups are numbered starting from 1. |
| \A | Matches only at the start of the string. |
| \b | Empty str at beginning or end of word: '\bis\b' matches 'is', but not 'his'. |
| \B | Empty str NOT at beginning or end of word. |
| \d | Any decimal digit (<=> [0-9]). |
| \D | Any non-decimal digit char (<=> [^0-9]). |
| \s | Any whitespace char (<=> [ \t\n\r\f\v]). |
| \S | Any non-whitespace char (<=> [^ \t\n\r\f\v]). |
| \w | Any alphaNumeric char (depends on LOCALE flag). |
| \W | Any non-alphaNumeric char (depends on LOCALE flag). |
| \Z | Matches only at the end of the string. |
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| error | Exception when pattern string isn't a valid regexp. |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| compile(pattern[,flags=0]) | Compiles a RE pattern string into a regular expression object. Flags (combinable by |):
|
| escape(string) | Returns (a copy of) string with all non-alphanumerics backslashed. |
| match(pattern, string[, flags]) | If 0 or more chars at beginning of string matches the RE pattern string,
returns a corresponding MatchObject instance,
or None if no match. |
| search(pattern, string[, flags]) | Scans thru string for a location matching pattern, returns a corresponding
MatchObject instance, or None if no match. |
| split(pattern, string[, maxsplit=0]) | Splits string by occurrences of pattern. If capturing () are used in pattern, then occurrences of patterns or subpatterns are also returned. |
| findall(pattern, string) | Returns a list of non-overlapping matches in pattern, either a list of groups or a list of tuples if the pattern has more than 1 group. |
| sub(pattern, repl, string[, count=0]) | Returns string obtained by replacing the (count first) leftmost non-overlapping occurrences of pattern (a string or a RE object) in string by repl; repl can be a string or a function called with a single MatchObj arg, which must return the replacement string. |
| subn(pattern, repl, string[, count=0]) | Same as sub(), but returns a tuple (newString, numberOfSubsMade). |
| Attribute | Description |
|---|---|
| flags | Flags arg used when RE obj was compiled, or 0 if none provided. |
| groupindex | Dictionary of {group name: group number} in pattern. |
| pattern | Pattern string from which RE obj was compiled. |
| Method | Result |
|---|---|
| match(string[, pos][, endpos]) | If zero or more characters at the beginning of string match this regular expression,
returns a corresponding MatchObject instance. Returns None if
the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.The optional second parameter pos gives an index in the string where the search is to start; it defaults to 0. This is not completely equivalent to slicing the string; the '' pattern character matches at the real beginning of the string and at positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the index where the search is to start. The optional parameter endpos limits how far the string will be searched; it will be as if the string is endpos characters long, so only the characters from pos to endpos will be searched for a match. |
| search(string[, pos][, endpos]) | Scans through string looking for a location where this regular expression produces a match,
and returns a corresponding MatchObject instance. Returns None if
no position in the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
zero-length match at some point in the string.The optional pos and endpos parameters have the same meaning as for the match() method. |
| split(string[, maxsplit=0]) | Identical to the split() function, using the compiled pattern. |
| findall(string) | Identical to the findall() function, using the compiled pattern. |
| sub(repl, string[, count=0]) | Identical to the sub() function, using the compiled pattern. |
| subn(repl, string[, count=0]) | Identical to the subn() function, using the compiled pattern. |
| Attribute | Description |
|---|---|
| pos | Value of pos passed to search or match functions; index into string at which RE engine started search. |
| endpos | Value of endpos passed to search or match functions; index into string beyond which RE engine won't go. |
| re | RE object whose match or search fct produced this MatchObj instance. |
| string | String passed to match() or search(). |
| Function | Result |
|---|---|
| group([g1, g2, ...]) | Returns one or more groups of the match. If one arg, result is a string; if multiple args, result is a tuple with one item per arg. If gi is 0, returns value is entire matching string; if 1 <= gi <= 99, return string matching group #gi (or None if no such group); gi may also be a group name. |
| groups() | Returns a tuple of all groups of the match; groups not participating to the match have a value of None. Returns a string instead of tuple if len(tuple)== 1. |
| start(group), end(group) | Returns indices of start & end of substring matched by group (or None if group exists but didn't contribute to the match). |
| span(group) | Returns the 2-tuple (start(group), end(group)); can be (None, None) if group didn't contibute to the match. |
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| pi | 3.1415926535897931 |
| e | 2.7182818284590451 |
| Name | Result |
|---|---|
| acos(x) | Returns the arc cosine (measured in radians) of x. |
| asin(x) | Returns the arc sine (measured in radians) of x. |
| atan(x) | Returns the arc tangent (measured in radians) of x. |
| atan2(y, x) | Returns the arc tangent (measured in radians) of y/x. The result is between -pi and pi.
Unlike atan(y/x), the signs of both x and y are considered. |
| ceil(x) | Returns the ceiling of x as a float. This is the smallest integral value >= x. |
| cos(x) | Returns the cosine of x (measured in radians). |
| cosh(x) | Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x. |
| degrees(x) | Converts angle x from radians to degrees. |
| exp(x) | Returns e raised to the power of x. |
| fabs(x) | Returns the absolute value of the float x. |
| floor(x) | Returns the floor of x as a float. This is the largest integral value <= x. |
| fmod(x, y) | Returns fmod(x, y), according to platform C. x % y may differ. |
| frexp(x) | Returns the mantissa and exponent of x, as pair (m, e).
m is a float and e is an int, such that x = m * 2.**e. If x is 0, m and e
are both 0. Else 0.5 <= abs(m) < 1.0. |
| hypot(x, y) | Returns the Euclidean distance sqrt(x*x + y*y). |
| ldexp(x, i) | x * (2**i) |
| log(x[, base]) | Returns the logarithm of x to the given base. If the base is not specified, returns the natural logarithm (base e) of x. |
| log10(x) | Returns the base 10 logarithm of x. |
| modf(x) | Returns the fractional and integer parts of x. Both results carry the sign of x. The integer part is returned as a float. |
| pow(x, y) | Returns x**y (x to the power of y).
Note that for y=2, it is more efficient to use x*x. |
| radians(x) | Converts angle x from degrees to radians. |
| sin(x) | Returns the sine (measured in radians) of x. |
| sinh(x) | Returns the hyperbolic sine of x. |
| sqrt(x) | Returns the square root of x. |
| tan(x) | Returns the tangent (measured in radians) of x. |
| tanh(x) | Returns the hyperbolic tangent of x. |
getopt(list, optstr) -- Similar to C. <optstr> is option letters to look for.
Put ':' after letter if option takes arg. E.g.
# invocation was "python test.py -c hi -a arg1 arg2"
opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], 'ab:c:')
# opts would be
[('-c', 'hi'), ('-a', '')]
# args would be
['arg1', 'arg2']
Lib directory. The subdirectory
Lib/site-packages contains platform-specific packages and modules. | Operation | Result |
|---|---|
| aifc | Stuff to parse AIFF-C and AIFF files. |
| anydbm | Generic interface to all dbm clones. (dbhash, gdbm, dbm, dumbdbm). |
| asynchat | A class supporting chat-style (command/response) protocols. |
| asyncore | Basic infrastructure for asynchronous socket service clients and servers. |
| atexit | Register functions to be called at exit of Python interpreter. |
| audiodev | Classes for manipulating audio devices (currently only for Sun and SGI). |
| base64 | Conversions to/from base64 transport encoding as per RFC-1521. |
| BaseHTTPServer | HTTP server base class |
| |
|
| bdb | A generic Python debugger base class. |
| bsddb | (Optional) improved BSD database interface [package]. |
| binhex | Macintosh binhex compression/decompression. |
| bisect | Bisection algorithms. |
| bz2 | BZ2 compression. |
| calendar | Calendar printing functions. |
| cgi | Wraps the WWW Forms Common Gateway Interface (CGI). |
| CGIHTTPServer | CGI-savvy HTTP Server. |
| cmd | A generic class to build line-oriented command interpreters. |
| |
|
| |
|
| code | Utilities needed to emulate Python's interactive interpreter. |
| codecs | Lookup existing Unicode encodings and register new ones. |
| codeop | Utilities to compile possibly incomplete Python source code. |
| collections | high-performance container datatypes. Currently, the only datatype is a double-ended queue. |
| colorsys | Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems. |
| commands | Execute shell commands via os.popen [Unix only]. |
| compileall | Force "compilation" of all .py files in a directory. |
| ConfigParser | Configuration file parser (much like windows .ini files). |
| Cookie | HTTP state (cookies) management. |
| copy | Generic shallow and deep copying operations. |
| copy_reg | Helper to provide extensibility for modules pickle/cPickle. |
| csv | Tools to read comma-separated files (of variations thereof). |
| datetime | Improved date/time types (date, time, datetime, timedelta). |
| dbhash | (g)dbm-compatible interface to bsdhash.hashopen. |
| decimal | Decimal floating point arithmetic. |
| difflib | Tool for comparing sequences, and computing the changes required to convert one into another. |
| dircache | Sorted list of files in a dir, using a cache. |
| |
|
| dis | Bytecode disassembler. |
| distutils | Package installation system. |
| distutils.command.register | Registers a module in the Python package index (PyPI). This command plugin adds the register command to distutil scripts. |
| distutils.debug | |
| distutils.emxccompiler | |
| distutils.log | |
| doctest | Unit testing framework based on running examples embedded in docstrings. |
| DocXMLRPCServer | Creation of self-documenting XML-RPC servers, using pydoc to create HTML API doc on the fly. |
| dumbdbm | A dumb and slow but simple dbm clone. |
| |
|
| dummy_thread | |
| dummy_threading | Helpers to make it easier to write code that uses threads where supported, but still runs on Python versions without thread support. The dummy modules simply run the threads sequentially. |
| A package for parsing, handling, and generating email messages. New version 3.0 dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python versions earlier than 2.3. | |
| encodings | New codecs: idna (IDNA strings), koi8_u (Ukranian), palmos (PalmOS 3.5), punycode (Punycode IDNA codec), string_escape (Python string escape codec: replaces non-printable chars w/ Python-style string escapes). New codecs in 2.4: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11, ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, TIS-620; Chinese, Japanese and Korean codecs. |
| exceptions | Class based built-in exception hierarchy. |
| filecmp | File and directory comparison. |
| fileinput | Helper class to quickly write a loop over all standard input files. |
| |
|
| fnmatch | Filename matching with shell patterns. |
| formatter | Generic output formatting. |
| fpformat | General floating point formatting functions. |
| ftplib | An FTP client class. Based on RFC 959. |
| gc | Perform garbage collection, obtain GC debug stats, and tune GC parameters. |
| getopt | Standard command line processing. See also optparse. |
| getpass | Utilities to get a password and/or the current user name. |
| gettext | Internationalization and localization support. |
| glob | Filename "globbing" utility. |
| gopherlib | Gopher protocol client interface. |
| |
|
| gzip | Read & write gzipped files. |
| heapq | Heap queue (priority queue) helpers. |
| hmac | HMAC (Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication). |
| hotshot.stones | Helper to run the pystone benchmark under the Hotshot profiler. |
| htmlentitydefs | HTML character entity references. |
| htmllib | HTML2 parsing utilities |
| HTMLParser | Simple HTML and XHTML parser. |
| httplib | HTTP1 client class. |
| idlelib | (package) Support library for the IDLE development environment. |
| ihooks | Hooks into the "import" mechanism. |
| imaplib | IMAP4 client.Based on RFC 2060. |
| imghdr | Recognizing image files based on their first few bytes. |
| imputil | Provides a way of writing customized import hooks. |
| inspect | Get information about live Python objects. |
| itertools | Tools to work with iterators and lazy sequences. |
| keyword | List of Python keywords. |
| linecache | Cache lines from files. |
ossaudiodev(Linux). |
|
| locale | Support for number formatting using the current locale settings. |
| logging | (package) Tools for structured logging in log4j style. |
| macpath | Pathname (or related) operations for the Macintosh [Mac]. |
| macurl2path | Mac specific module for conversion between pathnames and URLs [Mac]. |
| mailbox | Classes to handle Unix style, MMDF style, and MH style mailboxes. |
| mailcap | Mailcap file handling (RFC 1524). |
| marshal | Internal Python object serialization. |
| markupbase | Shared support for scanning document type declarations in HTML and XHTML. |
| mhlib | MH (mailbox) interface. |
| mimetools | Various tools used by MIME-reading or MIME-writing programs. |
| mimetypes | Guess the MIME type of a file. |
| MimeWriter | Generic MIME writer. Deprecated since release 2.3.
Use the email package instead. |
| mimify | Mimification and unmimification of mail messages. |
| mmap | Interface to memory-mapped files - they behave like mutable strings. |
| modulefinder | Tools to find what modules a given Python program uses, without actually running the program. |
| multifile | A readline()-style interface to the parts of a multipart message. |
| mutex | Mutual exclusion -- for use with module sched. See also std module threading,
and glock. |
| netrc | Parses and encapsulates the netrc file format. |
| nntplib | An NNTP client class. Based on RFC 977. |
| ntpath | Common operations on Windows pathnames. |
| nturl2path | Convert a NT pathname to a file URL and vice versa. |
| olddifflib | Old version of difflib (helpers for computing deltas between objects)? |
| operator | Standard operators as functions |
| optparse | Improved command-line option parsing library (see also getopt). |
| os | OS routines for Mac, DOS, NT, or Posix depending on what system we're on. |
| os2emxpath | os.path support for OS/2 EMX. |
| |
|
| pdb | A Python debugger. |
| pickle | Pickling (save and restore) of Python objects (a faster C implementation exists
in built-in module: cPickle). |
| pickletools | Tools to analyze and disassemble pickles. |
| pipes | Conversion pipeline templates. |
| pkgutil | Tools to extend the module search path for a given package. |
| platform | Get info about the underlying platform. |
| |
|
| popen2 | Spawn a command with pipes to its stdin, stdout, and optionally stderr. Superseded by module subprocess since 2.4 |
| poplib | A POP3 client class. |
| posixfile | Extended file operations available in POSIX. |
| posixpath | Common operations on POSIX pathnames. |
| pprint | Support to pretty-print lists, tuples, & dictionaries recursively. |
| pre | Support for regular expressions (RE) - see re. |
| profile | Class for profiling python code. |
| pstats | Class for printing reports on profiled python code. |
| pty | Pseudo terminal utilities. |
| py_compile | Routine to "compile" a .py file to a .pyc file. |
| pyclbr | Parse a Python file and retrieve classes and methods. |
| pydoc | Generate Python documentation in HTML or text for interactive use. |
| pyexpat | Interface to the Expat XML parser. |
| |
unittest. |
| Queue | A multi-producer, multi-consumer queue. |
| quopri | Conversions to/from quoted-printable transport encoding as per RFC 1521. |
| rand | Don't use unless you want compatibility with C's rand(). |
| random | Random variable generators. |
| re | Regular Expressions. |
| readline | GNU readline interface [Unix]. |
| reconvert | Convert old ("regex") regular expressions to new syntax ("re"). |
| regex_syntax | Flags for regex.set_syntax(). |
| regexp | Backward compatibility for module "regexp" using "regex". |
| regsub | Regexp-based split and replace using the obsolete regex module. |
| repr | Redo repr() but with limits on most sizes. |
| |
|
| rfc822 | Parse RFC-8222 mail headers. |
| rlcompleter | Word completion for GNU readline 2.0. |
| robotparser | Parse robot.txt files, useful for web spiders. |
| sched | A generally useful event scheduler class. |
| sets | A Set datatype implementation based on dictionaries (see Sets). |
| sgmllib | A parser for SGML, using the derived class as a static DTD. |
| shelve | Manage shelves of pickled objects. |
| shlex | Lexical analyzer class for simple shell-like syntaxes. |
| shutil | Utility functions for copying files and directory trees. |
| SimpleHTTPServer | Simple HTTP Server. |
| SimpleXMLRPCServer | Simple XML-RPC Server |
| site | Append module search paths for third-party packages to sys.path. |
| smtpd | An RFC 2821 smtp proxy. |
| smtplib | SMTP/ESMTP client class. |
| sndhdr | Several routines that help recognizing sound. |
| socket | Socket operations and some related functions. Now supports timeouts
thru function settimeout(t). Also supports SSL on Windows. |
| SocketServer | Generic socket server classes. |
| sre | Support for regular expressions (RE). See re. |
| stat | Constants/functions for interpreting results of os. |
| statcache | Maintain a cache of stat() information on files. |
| statvfs | Constants for interpreting statvfs struct as returned by os.statvfs()
and os.fstatvfs() (if they exist). |
| string | A collection of string operations (see Strings). |
| stringprep | Normalization and manipulation of Unicode strings. |
| StringIO | File-like objects that read/write a string buffer (a faster C implementation exists
in built-in module: cStringIO). |
| subprocess | Subprocess management. Replacement for os.system, os.spawn*, os.popen*, popen2.* [PEP324] |
| sunau | Stuff to parse Sun and NeXT audio files. |
| sunaudio | Interpret sun audio headers. |
| symbol | Non-terminal symbols of Python grammar (from "graminit.h"). |
| symtable | Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables. |
| tabnanny | Check Python source for ambiguous indentation. |
| tarfile | Tools to read and create TAR archives. |
| telnetlib | TELNET client class. Based on RFC 854. |
| tempfile | Temporary files and filenames. |
| textwrap | Tools to wrap paragraphs of text. |
| threading | Proposed new threading module, emulating a subset of Java's threading model. |
| threading_api | (doc of the threading module). |
| timeit | Benchmark tool. |
| toaiff | Convert "arbitrary" sound files to AIFF (Apple and SGI's audio format). |
| token | Token constants (from "token.h"). |
| tokenize | Tokenizer for Python source. |
| traceback | Extract, format and print information about Python stack traces. |
| trace | Tools to trace execution of a function or program. |
| tty | Terminal utilities [Unix]. |
| turtle | LogoMation-like turtle graphics. |
| types | Define names for all type symbols in the std interpreter. |
| tzparse | Parse a timezone specification. |
| unicodedata | Interface to unicode properties. |
| unittest | Python unit testing framework, based on Erich Gamma's and Kent Beck's JUnit. |
| urllib | Open an arbitrary URL. |
| urllib2 | An extensible library for opening URLs using a variety of protocols. |
| urlparse | Parse (absolute and relative) URLs. |
| user | Hook to allow user-specified customization code to run. |
| |
A wrapper to allow subclassing of built-in dict class
(useless with new-style classes.
Since Python 2.2, dict is subclassable). |
| |
A wrapper to allow subclassing of built-in list class
(useless with new-style classes.
Since Python 2.2, list is subclassable) |
| |
A wrapper to allow subclassing of built-in string class
(useless with new-style classes.
Since Python 2.2, str is subclassable). |
| |
|
| uu | Implementation of the UUencode and UUdecode functions. |
| warnings | Python part of the warnings subsystem. Issue warnings, and filter unwanted warnings. |
| wave | Stuff to parse WAVE files. |
| weakref | Weak reference support for Python. Also allows the creation of proxy objects. |
| webbrowser | Platform independent URL launcher. |
| |
|
| whichdb | Guess which db package to use to open a db file. |
| whrandom | Wichmann-Hill random number generator (obsolete, use random instead). |
| xdrlib | Implements (a subset of) Sun XDR (eXternal Data Representation). |
| xmllib | A parser for XML, using the derived class as static DTD. |
| xml.dom | Classes for processing XML using the DOM (Document Object Model). 2.3: New modules expatbuilder, minicompat, NodeFilter, xmlbuilder. |
| xml.sax | Classes for processing XML using the SAX API. |
| xmlrpclib | An XML-RPC client interface for Python. |
| xreadlines | Provides a sequence-like object for reading a file line-by-line without reading the entire file into memory.
Deprecated since release 2.3. Use for line in file instead.
Removed since 2.4 |
| zipfile | Read & write PK zipped files. |
| zipimport | ZIP archive importer. |
| |
|
dir(object) list valid attributes of object (which can be a module, type or class object)
dir() list names in current local symbol table.
if __name__ == '__main__': main() invoke main() if running as script map(None, lst1, lst2, ...) merge lists; see also zip(lst1, lst2, ...)
b = a[:] create a copy b of sequence a
b = list(a) If a is a list, create a copy of it.
_ (underscore) in interactive mode, refers to the last value printed.
(The following has not been revised, probably not up to date - any contribution welcome -)
Type C-c ? when in python-mode for extensive help.
INDENTATION
Primarily for entering new code:
TAB indent line appropriately
LFD insert newline, then indent
DEL reduce indentation, or delete single character
Primarily for reindenting existing code:
C-c : guess py-indent-offset from file content; change locally
C-u C-c : ditto, but change globally
C-c TAB reindent region to match its context
C-c < shift region left by py-indent-offset
C-c > shift region right by py-indent-offset
MARKING & MANIPULATING REGIONS OF CODE
C-c C-b mark block of lines
M-C-h mark smallest enclosing def
C-u M-C-h mark smallest enclosing class
C-c # comment out region of code
C-u C-c # uncomment region of code
MOVING POINT
C-c C-p move to statement preceding point
C-c C-n move to statement following point
C-c C-u move up to start of current block
M-C-a move to start of def
C-u M-C-a move to start of class
M-C-e move to end of def
C-u M-C-e move to end of class
EXECUTING PYTHON CODE
C-c C-c sends the entire buffer to the Python interpreter
C-c | sends the current region
C-c ! starts a Python interpreter window; this will be used by
subsequent C-c C-c or C-c | commands
VARIABLES
py-indent-offset indentation increment
py-block-comment-prefix comment string used by py-comment-region
py-python-command shell command to invoke Python interpreter
py-scroll-process-buffer t means always scroll Python process buffer
py-temp-directory directory used for temp files (if needed)
py-beep-if-tab-change ring the bell if tab-width is changed